Snub-nosed monkey

The snub-nosed monkeys are a group of Old World monkeys and make up the entirety of the genus Rhinopithecus. The genus occurs rarely, and needs much more research. Some taxonomists group snub-nosed monkeys together with the ''Pygathrix'' genus.

Snub-nosed monkeys live in Asia, with a range covering southern China as well as the northern part of Vietnam.

These monkeys get their name from the short, stump of a nose on their round face, with nostrils arranged forward. They have relatively multicolored and long fur, particularly at the shoulders and backs. They grow to a length of 51 to 83 cm with a tail of 55 to 97 cm.

Snub-nosed monkeys inhabit mountain forests up to a height of 4000 m, in the winter moving into the deeply secluded regions. They spend the majority of their life in the trees. They live together in very large groups of up to 600 members, splitting up into smaller groups in times of food-scarcity, such as in the winter. Groups consist of many more males than females. They have territorial instincts, defending their territory mostly with shouts. They have a large vocal repertoire, calling sometimes solo while at other times together in choir-like fashion.

The diet of these animals consists mainly of tree needles, bamboo buds, fruits and leaves. A multi-chambered stomach helps them with digesting their food.

The impulse for mating starts with the female. She takes up eye contact with the male and runs away a short bit, then flashes her genitals. If the male shows interest , he joins the female and they mate. The 200-day gestation period ends with a single birth in late spring or early summer. Young animals become fully mature in about 6 to 7 years. Zoologists know little about their lifespan.

Species

Genus ''Rhinopithecus''
*Golden Snub-nosed Monkey, ''Rhinopithecus roxellana''
**Moupin Golden Snub-nosed Monkey, ''Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana''
**Qinling Golden Snub-nosed Monkey, ''Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis''
**Hubei Golden Snub-nosed Monkey, ''Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis''
*Black Snub-nosed Monkey, ''Rhinopithecus bieti''
*Gray Snub-nosed Monkey, ''Rhinopithecus brelichi''
*Tonkin Snub-nosed Langur, ''Rhinopithecus avunculus''

Salea kakhienensis

The Kakhyen Hills Spiny Lizard ''Salea kakhienensis'' is a species of Agamidae found in S China , Myanmar , India, N Thailand.
Type locality: Ponsee, Western Yunnan.

Red Panda

The Red Panda, Firefox, Fire Cat, Fat Fox or Lesser Panda, or ''Ailurus fulgens'' , is a mostly herbivorous mammal, specialized as a bamboo feeder. It is slightly larger than a domestic cat . The Red Panda is to the Himalayas in Bhutan, southern , India, Laos, Nepal, and Burma. Red Panda is the state animal in the of Sikkim. It is also the mascot of the Darjeeling international festivals. There is an estimated population of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. Their population continues to decline due to habitat fragmentation.

Phylogenetics

The most recent molecular-systematic DNA research places the Red Panda into its own independent family Ailuridae. Ailuridae are in turn part of a trichotomy within the broad superfamily Musteloidea that also includes the Mephitidae and the Procyonidae + Mustelidae . Unlike the Giant Panda, it is not a bear .

There are two subspecies of Red Panda: the Western Red Panda that lives in the western part of its range, and the somewhat larger Styan's Red Panda that lives in the east-northeastern part of its range. The Western Red Panda has lighter pelage, especially in the face, while the Styan's Red Panda has more dramatic facial markings. The effective population size in the Sichuan population is larger and more stable than that in the Yunnan population, implying a southward expansion from Sichuan to Yunnan.

The taxonomic classification of both the Red Panda and Giant Panda has been under debate for many decades, as both species share characteristics of both bears and raccoons. However, they are only very distantly related by remote common ancestry from the Early Tertiary . Its common ancestor can be traced back to tens of millions of years ago with a wide distribution across Eurasia. Fossils of the Red Panda have been unearthed from China in the east to in the west , and most recently a handful of fossils have also been discovered in North America.

Distribution

Red Pandas are native to , along a crescent formed by the Himalaya Mountain foothills from western Nepal, southern Tibet, Bhutan, and Northeast India, then east into the highlands of Burma , the Gongshan Mountains of Yunnan province in China, and the Hengduan Mountains of Sichuan province in China. The latter area is thought to have been a refuge for Red Pandas, as well as many other animals, during the last period of glaciation. The gorge of the Brahmaputra River, as it loops around the eastern end of the Himalayas, is considered a natural division between the two subspecies, although some suggest the ''A. f. fulgens'' range extends more eastwardly into Yunnan China. Red pandas used to have a broader distribution farther northeast into China and farther southwest into India.

Red Pandas inhabit climates of moderate temperature with little annual fluctuation and prefer forested mountainous areas at elevations of 1,800-4,800 m,or 5000-15,700 ft, particularly temperate deciduous-coniferous forests with an understory of rhododendron and, of course, bamboo. They share habitat with another bamboo specialist, the Giant Panda, in China . Red Pandas are cavity nesters, using rock dens and old hollow trees. They often spend the day drooped over a branch high in the trees, feeding more actively at dawn and dusk. There are also several red panda populations living in zoos around the world. The North American captive population is maintained under the Species Survival Plan , and contained 45 animals as of May 2008. The Red Panda is shown being trained in episodes of Zoo Diaries.

Biology and behaviour

Physical characteristics

The Red Panda is quite long: 79-120 cm, or 31 to 47 in . Males weigh 4.5 to 6.2 kg ; females 3 to 4.5 kg .
The Red Panda is specialized as a bamboo feeder, with long and soft reddish-brown fur on upper parts, blackish fur on lower parts, light face with tear markings and robust - features. The light face has white badges similar to those of a raccoon, but each individual can have distinctive markings. Its roundish head has medium-sized upright ears, a black nose, and very dark eyes: almost pitch black. Its long bushy tail with six alternating yellowish red transverse ocher rings provides balance and excellent camouflage against its habitat of moss- and lichen-covered trees. The legs are black, short with thick fur on the soles of the paws hiding scent glands and serving as thermal insulation on snow-covered or ice surfaces. The Red Panda is specialized as a bamboo feeder with strong, curved and sharp semi-retractile claws standing inward for firm grasping to facilitate substantial movement on narrow tree branches and seizing leaves and fruit. Like the Giant Pandas , it has a “false thumb” that really is an extension of the wrist bone.

Behavior

Red Pandas are crepuscular and live in the slopes of the south of the Himalayas and the mountainous forests of the southwest of China, at altitudes of up to 4,800 meters, and generally do not venture below 1,800 meters. They are sedentary during the day resting in the branches of trees and in tree hollows and increase their activity only in the late afternoon and/or early evening hours. They are very heat sensitive with an optimal “well-being” temperature between 17 and 25°C, and cannot tolerate temperatures over 25 °C at all. As a result, Red Pandas sleep during the hot noontime in the shady crowns of treetops, often lying stretched out on forked branches or rolled up in tree caves with their tail covering their face

Red Pandas are very skillful and acrobatic animals that live predominantly in trees. They live in territories, frequently alone, and only rarely live in pairs or in groups of families. They are very quiet except for some and whistling communication sounds. They search for food at night, running along the ground or through the trees with speed and agility and, after finding food, use their front paws to place the food into their mouths. Red pandas drink by plunging their paw into the water and licking their paws. Predators of Red Pandas are snow leopards , martens and humans. The species has also faced a great deal of human-induced habitat destruction.

Red Pandas begin their daily activity with a ritual washing of their fur by licking their front paws and massaging their back, stomach and sides. They also scrub their back and belly along the sides of trees or a rock. They then patrol their territory, marking it with a weak musk-smelling secretion from their anal gland and with their urine.

If a Red Panda feels threatened or senses danger, it will often try to scamper up into an inaccessible rock column or a tree. If they can no longer flee, they stand up on their hind legs, which makes them appear somewhat more daunting and allows them the possibility of using the razor-sharp claws on their front paws, which can inflict substantial wounds. Red Pandas are friendly, but are not helpless, and will resist if they feel threatened.

Diet

The Red Panda eats mostly bamboo. Like the Giant Panda, it cannot digest cellulose, so it must consume a large volume of bamboo to survive. Its diet consists of about two-thirds bamboo, but they also eat berries, fruit, mushrooms, roots, acorns, lichen, grasses, and they are known to supplement their diet with young birds, fish, eggs, small rodents, and insects on occasion. In captivity, however, they will readily eat meat. Red Pandas are excellent climbers and forage largely in trees. The Red Panda does little more than eat and sleep due to its low-calorie diet.
Bamboo shoots are more easily digested than leaves and exhibited the highest digestibility in the summer and autumn, intermediate in the spring, and low in the winter. These variations correlate with the nutrient contents in the bamboo. The Red Panda poorly processes bamboo, especially the cellulose and cell wall components. This implies that microbial digestion plays only a minor role in its digestive strategy. The transit of bamboo through the red panda gut is very rapid . In order to survive on this poor-quality diet, the Red Panda has to select high-quality sections of the bamboo plant such as the tender leaves and shoots in large quantities that pass through the digestive tract fairly rapidly so as to maximize nutrient intake .

Reproduction

The Red Panda is a solitary animal, usually seeking a partner only for mating from the end of December to the middle of February. After a gestation period of 112 to 158 days the female gives birth to one to four blind cubs weighing 110-130 g. This occurs between the end of May to the beginning of July. A few days before the birth the female begins to collect material, such as brushwood, grass and sheets, to use for the nest. The nest is normally located in a hollow tree or a rock column.

After the birth the mother cleans the cubs and in this way can immediately recognize each by knowing its smell. After one week the mother leaves the nest to clean herself. The cubs start to open their eyes about 18 days later, but not fully until 30 to 40 days. The eyes are first grey, and after six weeks slowly start to turn dark in colour, becoming fully darkened in about 70 days. The new litter remains at the nest for twelve weeks. After they leave the nest they will remain with their mother, weaning around 6-8 months of age.

The cubs will stay with their mother until the next cubs are born the following summer. The males only very rarely help with the raising of the new generation, and only if they live in pairs or in small groups. Red Pandas start to become sexually mature at about 18 months of age and are fully mature at 2-3 years. Their average lifespan is 8 - 10 years but can reach a maximum of 15 years.

The Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park at Darjeeling has been successful in conservation breeding of Red Pandas.

The Valley Zoo in Edmonton has a successful breeding program and has had two pairs of Red Pandas born there, one pair in 2007 and another pair in 2008.

Threats

Red Pandas are classified as endangered. No reliable numbers exist for the total population but it is very threatened due to the fragmentation of its natural habitats, their small numbers, and their food specialization needs. In southwest China the Red Panda is hunted for its fur and especially for its highly-valued bushy tail from which hats are produced. In the areas of China, where the Red Panda lives, their fur is often used for local cultural ceremonies and in weddings the bridegroom traditionally carries the hide. The 'good-luck charm' hats are used by Chinese newlyweds.

This, and the continuous clearing of the forests has significantly reduced the population. It is now protected in all countries in which it lives, and the hunting of Red Pandas is illegal everywhere. Nevertheless, poaching continues and they are often illegally hunted and sold to zoos for dumping prices. The IUCN has mandated that small Pandas are a “threatened species“ since 1996, however it is now listed as endangered. It is very difficult to estimate the total population, yet one can assume that they cannot bear much more of a habitat change and that they are in danger of extinction due to the disappearance of the forests and hunting for their highly-valued tails and fur.

The SREL DNA Lab at the University of Georgia has listed several key major threat indications. A 40% decrease in Red Panda populations reported in China over the last 50 years, and those in western/Himalayan areas are considered to be in worse shape. Red Pandas have a naturally low birth rate and a high death rate in the wild.

Natural population subdivision by topography and ecology has been worsened by human encroachment, leading to severe fragmentation of the remaining wild population. For example, 40 animals in 4 groups share resources of a preserve in Nepal with 30,000 humans . Small groups of animals, with little opportunity for exchange between them, face the risk of inbreeding, decreased genetic diversity, and even extinction. The Red Panda is endangered due to habitat loss caused by deforestation, grazing, and farming. For example government-encouraged cheese production for tourists in Nepal contributed to fuel wood consumption for the factory, overgrazing by chauri impacting bamboo growth, and intrusion by herders and dogs . Agricultural terracing is having a detrimental effect on former Red Panda habitat in Nepal. The Red Panda is also for good-luck charm' hats for Chinese newlyweds, other fur clothing, and for the illegal pet trade.

Pinus yunnanensis

Yunnan Pine is a species of conifer in the Pinaceae family.
It is found only in China .

Rafetus swinhoei

Rafetus swinhoei, commonly known as the Shanghai soft-shell turtle, Yangtze giant soft-shell turtle , or Swinhoe's soft-shell turtle, is a species of soft-shell turtle. It may be the largest fresh water turtle in the world. It is listed as critically endangered in the IUCN Red List 2006, and is one of the rarest turtles in the world. There are only two known to survive in China: an 80-year-old female in Changsha Zoo and a 100-year-old male in Suzhou Zoo. In Vietnam, a single large individual lives in Hoan Kiem Lake in the center of Hanoi. In 2007, scientists conducting surveys west of Hanoi discovered the world's only living example of ''Rafetus swinhoei'' in the wild.

Distribution

''Rafetus swinhoei'' have been known to inhabit the Yangtze River and Lake Taihu, situated on the border of Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces, in eastern China; Gejiu, Yuanyang, Jianshui and Honghe in Yunnan province in southern China; and the in the north of Vietnam. In recent years a single specimen of ''Rafetus swinhoei'' was caught by fishermen in Hoa Binh Province on the tributary of the .
The last known specimen caught in the wild in China was in 1998 in the Red River between Yuanyang and Jianshui ; that turtle was then released. A turtle in Hoan Kiem Lake in the center of Hanoi, Vietnam, has been sighted and caught on film in recent years.

Some local scientists claim that the specimen in Hoan Kiem Lake in Hanoi, Vietnam, is a separate species named ''Rafetus leloii'', or Hoan Kiem Turtle.

There are only two known living specimens in China, one each at Suzhou and Changsha Zoos. A third living specimen is at Hoan Kiem Lake;
A specimen at the Beijing Zoo died in 2005, and another one at the Shanghai Zoo died in 2006, both of them were caught at Gejiu in the 1970s.
Another was recently discovered in a north Vietnam lake, according to scientists. This specimen is said to still be in the lake.

Cordinated by the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Turtle Survival Alliance, the still reproductive, more than 80-year-old female living in the Changsha Zoo was introduced to the only known male in China, a more than 100-year-old individual living more than 600 miles away at the Suzhou Zoo, On May 5, 2008. The female has arrived safely and settled in well into her new habitat at the Suzhou Zoo, and biologists were optimistic for breeding success.

Description

''Rafetus swinhoei'' are noted for their deep head with pig-like snout and eyes placed. They measure over 100  cm in length and 70 cm in width and weigh approximately of 120-140 kg. Their carapace, or shell can grow larger than 50 cm in length and width. Their heads can measure over 20 cm in length and 10 cm in width. Males are generally smaller than females and have longer, larger tails.

Reproduction

Individuals lay from 60 to more than 100 eggs. They nest at night and during the morning.

Diet

Includes fish, crabs, snails, water hyacinth, frogs, and .

Key threats

Rafetus swinhoei is on the brink of extinction due to habitat loss, hunting for subsistence and local consumption, and the use of the carapace and bones in medicine. Skulls are often kept as trophies. A recent plan to build hydropower cascade of 12 dams on the Red River in China may flood all of its habitat and change the ecosystem of lower Viet Nam

Conservation efforts

Conservation efforts are concentrated on breeding captive turtles in China and searching for live specimens in the wild. An agreement was made to transfer the only known remaining female specimen located at the Changsha Zoo to the Suzhou Zoo to breed with the male specimen there. Also efforts are being made to improve conditions for breeding at both the Suzhou Zoo and Western Temple in Suzhou.
A workshop on the Rafetus Conservation at Yunnan was held by CI-Shanshui. Local Chinese scientists are searching for the last existent individuals. The two specimens were able to produce two clutches of eggs with over half of them being fertile, though unfortunately all of them perished before hatching. The Turtle Survival Alliance released a statement, saying "A number of the eggs had very thin shells, suggesting that the diet of the animals prior to breeding was not optimal." . The two turtle are now being prepared for another round of mating, while being fed a high calcium diet in an effort to strengthen the eggs. Liu Jinde, the director of the zoo said "We've worked very hard on this, We ought to succeed. The turtles are very healthy."

The scientists are preparing to mate the two once again in May 2009, which falls within this species' breeding season.

The legend of Kim Qui

The specimen located in Hoan Kiem Lake in Hanoi is thought to be the legendary ''Kim Qui'' , or Golden Turtle God, who has appeared at opportune moments throughout Vietnamese history. The golden turtle first appeared during the reign of King An Duong Vuong and assisted the king in the construction of defenses for the ancient capital of . When Co Loa was attacked Kim Qui assisted the king in making a magical cross-bow that rained arrows upon the invaders. When the King’s daughter conspired against her father Kim Qui emerged again to inform An Duong Vuong of the betrayal; the king consequentially killed his daughter and drowned himself in the lake.

In the 15th century, a general named Lê L?i obtained a magical sword that a fisherman had pulled out of the lake. Lê L?i used this sword to lead a rebellion against the Chinese armies that were in occupation of Vietnam. After establishing Vietnam's independence the now King Lê L?i returned to the lake and Kim Qui caught the sword in his teeth and submerged. Lê L?i then named the lake 'Lake of Restored Sword', or Hoan Kiem.

In 1999, 2000, and 2005 turtles have reemerged from Hoan Kiem Lake on special occasions, when it was seen by a large audience and caught on film. It is believed that there is only a single turtle left in the lake.

Pilea peperomioides

Pilea peperomioides, known as Chinese Money Plant, or Missionary Plant is a plant native to the Yunnan province in the south of China. Parasolpilea is characterised by having very round, dark green leafs with a 10cm diameter mounted in the middle on a long .

Peperomioides was first collected by in 1906, and in 1910, in the mountain range west of in the Yunnan province.

In 1945 the species was rediscovered by missionary Agnar Espegren in the Yunnan province when he was fleeing from the Hunan province. Espegren took some with him back to Norway, by India in 1946, and from there it spread throughout Scandinavia.

Phalaenopsis

Phalaenopsis is a genus of approximately 60 species of . The abbreviation in the horticultural trade is Phal. Phalaenopsis is one of the most popular orchids in the trade, through the development of many .

Description

The generic name means "Phalaen-like" and is probably a reference to the genus ''Phalaena'', the name given by Carolus Linnaeus to a group of large moths; the flowers of some species supposedly resemble moths in flight. For this reason, the species are sometimes called Moth orchids.

They are native throughout southeast Asia from the mountains to the islands of Polillo and Palawan of the Philippines and northern Australia. Orchid Island off Taiwan is named after this orchid. Little is known about their habitat and their ecology in nature since little field research has been done in the last decades.


Most are shade plants; a few are lithophytes. In the wild they are typically found below the canopies of moist and humid lowland forests, protected against direct sunlight, but equally in seasonally dry or cool environments. The species have adapted individually to these three habitats.

''Phalaenopsis'' shows a monopodial growth habit. An erect growing rhizome produces from the top one or two alternate, thick and fleshy, elliptical a year. The older, basal leaves drop off at the same rate. The plant retains in this way four to five leaves. If very healthy, they can have up to ten or more leaves. They have no pseudobulbs. The raceme appears from the between the leaves. They bloom in their full glory for several weeks. If kept in the home, they usually last two to three months.

Some ''Phalaenopsis'' species in Malaysia are known to use subtle weather cues to coordinate mass flowering.

Classification

The species can be classified into two groups :
*A group with a long, branched inflorescence and large, almost round flowers with rose or white tints.
*A group with short stems and less rounded, waxy flowers with more pronounced colors.
In terms of particular lifeform terminology, one can also characterize these plants as hemicryptophyte or chamerophyte :
hemicryptophyte : biennial or perennial plants with herbaceous stems. These stems die off after the growing season, while the shoots survive at soil level. The resting buds are just above or below soil level.
chamaephyte : low-growing plants with herbaceous and/or woody stems, that persist for several years. Their buds are on soil level or just above; but never above 50 cm.

The genera ''Doritis'' Lindl. and ''Kingidium'' P.F.Hunt are now included in ''Phalaneopsis'', based on DNA-evidence . However this is not implicitly accepted by every specialist in this field.

Intensive cross-fertilization has produced a great number of in all colors and variations. These are usually more adaptable to artificial conditions than their botanical ancestors. Most are hybrids of ''Phalaenopsis amabilis'' with ''Phalaenopsis schilleriana'' or ''Phalaenopsis stuartiana''.

Species

*''Phalaenopsis amabilis''
**''Phalaenopsis amabilis'' subsp. ''amabilis'' .
**''Phalaenopsis amabilis'' subsp. ''moluccana'' .
**''Phalaenopsis amabilis'' subsp. ''rosenstromii'' .
*''Phalaenopsis amboinensis'' .
**''Phalaenopsis amboinensis'' var. ''amboinensis'' .
**''Phalaenopsis amboinensis'' var. ''flavida''
*''Phalaenopsis aphrodite'' .
**''Phalaenopsis aphrodite'' subsp. ''aphrodite'' .
**''Phalaenopsis aphrodite'' subsp. ''formosana'' .
*''Phalaenopsis appendiculata'' .
*''Phalaenopsis bastianii'' .
*''Phalaenopsis bellina'' .
*''Phalaenopsis borneensis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis braceana'' .
*''Phalaenopsis buyssoniana'' .
*''Phalaenopsis celebensis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis chibae'' .

*''Phalaenopsis cochlearis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis corningiana'' .
*''Phalaenopsis cornu-cervi'' .
*''Phalaenopsis deliciosa'' .
**''Phalaenopsis deliciosa'' subsp. ''deliciosa'' (Indian subcontinent to Malesia
**''Phalaenopsis deliciosa'' subsp. ''hookeriana'' .
*''Phalaenopsis dowery?nsis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis equestris'' .
*''Phalaenopsis fasciata'' .
*''Phalaenopsis fimbriata'' .
*''Phalaenopsis floresensis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis fuscata''
*''Phalaenopsis gibbosa'' .
*''Phalaenopsis gigantea'' .
*''Phalaenopsis hainanensis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis hieroglyphica'' .
*''Phalaenopsis honghenensis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis inscriptiosinensis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis viridis'' .
*''Phalaenopsis wilsonii'' .
*''Phalaenopsis zebrina'' .

Natural hybrids

*''Phalaenopsis × amphitrita'' .
*''Phalaenopsis × gersenii'' .
*''Phalaenopsis × intermedia''
*''Phalaenopsis × leucorrhoda'' .
*''Phalaenopsis × singuliflora'' .
*''Phalaenopsis × veitchiana'' .

Intergeneric hybrids

x''Aeridopsis''
x''Arachnopsis''
x''Asconopsis''
x''Beardara''
x''Bogardara''
x''Bokchoonara''
x''Cleisonopsis''
x''Devereuxara''
x''Diplonopsis''
x''Doriellaopsis''
x''Doritaenopsis''
x''Dresslerara''
x''Edeara''
x''Ernestara''
x''Eurynopsis''
x''Hagerara''
x''Hausermannara''
x''Himoriara''
x''Isaoara''
x''Laycockara''
x''Lichtara''
x''Luinopsis''
x''Lutherara''
x''Macekara''
x''Meechaiara''
x''Moirara''
x''Nakagawaara''
x''Owensara''
x''Parnataara''
x''Paulara''
x''Pepeara''
x''Phalaerianda''
x''Phalandopsis''
x''Phalanetia''
x''Phaliella''
x''Pooleara''
x''Renanthopsis''
x''Rhynchonopsis''
x''Rhyndoropsis''
x''Richardmizutaara''
x''Roseara''
x''Sappanara''
x''Sarconopsis''
x''Sidranara''
x''Sladeara''
x''Stamariaara''
x''Sutingara''
x''Trautara''
x''Trevorara''
x''Trichonopsis''
x''Uptonara''
x''Vandaenopsis''
x''Vandewegheara''
x''Yapara''
x''Yeepengara''
There is no true intergeneric hybrid between ''Phalaenopsis'' and the closely related ''Paraphalaenopsis''. However, according to the , there is a grex . ''Phalphalaenopsis'' Doris Thornton is currently the one and only registered grex that represents a cross between a ''Paraphalaenopsis'' and a ''Phalaenopsis'' . Therefore, strictly speaking, the genetic barrier between these two closely related genera has not been crossed. But, since there are only very few true ''Phalaenopsis'' species in cultivation , the possibility of a true intergeneric hybrid is not to be excluded.

Post-pollination changes in ''Phalaenopsis'' orchids

''Phalaenopsis'' are not only outstanding in their beauty, but also unique in that in some species, the flowers turn into green leaves after pollination. As in many other plants, the petals of the orchid flowers serve to attract pollinating insects and protect essential organs. Following pollination, petals will usually undergo senescence because it is metabolically expensive to maintain them. In many ''Phalaenopsis'' species such as ''P.violacea'', the petals and sepals find new uses following pollination and thus escaping programmed cell death. By inducing the formation of chloroplasts, they turn green, become fleshy and apparently start to photosynthesize, just like leaves.

Growing ''Phalaenopsis''

''Phalaenopsis'' are among the most popular orchids sold as potted plants owing to the ease of propagation and flowering under artificial conditions. They were among the first tropical orchids in collections. Since the advent of the tetrapoloid hybrid ''Phalaenopsis'' Doris, they have become extremely easy to grow and flower in the home, as long as some care is taken to provide them with conditions that approximate their native habitats. Their production has become a commercial industry.

In nature, they are typically fond of warm temperatures , but are adaptable to conditions more comfortable for human habitation in temperate zones ; at temperatures below 18 °C watering should be reduced to avoid the risk of root rot. ''Phalaenopsis'' requires high humidity and low light of 12,000 to 20,000 lux. Flowering is triggered by a night-time drop in temperature of around 5 to 6 degrees over 2 to 4 consecutive weeks, usually in the fall, and a day-time drop in temperature to below 29 °C.

''Phalaenopsis'' prefer to be potted in osmunda fiber , a nearly ideal medium, but this has become expensive. More usual now is fir bark, which is more free-draining than sphagnum moss. Keep them in pots with a lot of drainage. One of the common blunders that new growers make is to rot the roots. Overwatering and poor drainage cause the roots to deteriorate, therefore killing the plant. The safest thing to do is to water when you feel the potting medium and find it is dry through and through.

Light is vital to the well-being of the ''Phalaenopsis'' orchid. Keep it in indirect light near a southern window. Be sure the sun does not directly reach the leaves, which will cause burning and unaesthetic brown marks. If the leaf feels hot to the touch, move it away immediately! On the other hand, phalaenopsis grown in poor dark areas tend to grow floppy dark green leaves and rarely flower.

''Phalaenopsis'' roots are quite thick, and the green point at the ends signifies that the root is actively growing. It is okay for them to climb out of the pots. Keep the plant fertilized with a 1/4 diluted strength balanced fertilizer three times out of four waterings.

The flower spikes appear from the pockets near the base of each leaf. The first sign is a light green "mitten-like" object that protrudes from the leaf tissue. In about three months, the spike elongates until it begins to swell fat buds. The buds will thus bloom. Usually you can tell what color the ''Phalaenopsis'' is by looking at the bud color. After
the flowers fade, some people prefer to cut the spike above the highest node . This may produce another flower spike or more rarely a keiki .

Using two ''Phalaenopsis'' clones, Matthew G. Blanchard and Erik S. Runkle established that, other culture conditions being optimal, flower initiation is controlled by daytime temperatures declining below 27°C, with a definite inhibition of flowering at temperatures exceeding 29°C. The long-held traditional belief that reduced evening temperatures control flower initiation in ''Phalaenopsis'' appears to be false.

Peacock orchid

Peacock orchids are a small group of beautiful, predominantly but sometimes or , miniature orchids. This genus is named after , mother of the and comprises about 20 species. Other common names of this genus include glory of the East, Himalayan crocus, Indian crocus and windowsill orchid. The genus Diploconchium is generally included here. The is also sometimes commonly referred to as a "peacock orchid," however it has no relation to the pleione flower. The genus ''Pleione'' is abbreviated Pln in trade journals.

They are distributed in the mountains and foothills of Himalaya, India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and China and are well adapted to cold temperatures and even frost. A few, however, prefer warmer temperatures. They grow in well-drained habitats and on rocks covered with moss at altitudes between 600 and 4200 m.

The sympodial growth habit of terrestrial ''Pleione'' orchids is unusual. They have relatively large, spongy, almost globular or ampulliform pseudobulbs, narrowed at the apex. Every pseudobulb is only active for one year and carries one or two pleated parallel-veined , with a length of 15-30 cm. These drop off before winter. The pseudobulb stays dormant, till a new one starts to develop. This one produces new roots and a short pedicel. This pseudobulb remains active till the end of the bloom. Then the whole cycle starts all over again.

The big, showy flowers originate from new shoots formed at the base of the pseudobulb. They are pink to purplish, white or yellow, while the fringed, tubular is often paler or white, with yellow, red or purple dots and stripes. The flowers of the mountain species start blooming in spring, while the new shoots develop. The flowers of the orchids, growing in warmer climates, bloom in autumn, when the leaves have dropped.

They are very closely related to the equally beautiful genus ''Coelogyne'' and were once considered part of it.

They are easily grown by the layman, easy to propagate and are among the most popular orchids. They are much in demand for hybridization.

Species

*''Pleione albiflora'' .
*''Pleione aurita'' .
*''Pleione braemii'' .
*''Pleione bulbocodioides''
*''Pleione chunii'' .
*''Pleione coronaria'' .
*''Pleione formosana'' : Taiwan Pleione .
*''Pleione forrestii'' - to N. Myanmar).
*''Pleione grandiflora'' (China .
*''Pleione hookeriana''
*''Pleione humilis'' .
*''Pleione limprichtii'' : Hardy Chinese Orchid .
*''Pleione maculata'' .
*''Pleione microphylla'' .
*''Pleione pleionoides'' .
*''Pleione praecox'' .
*''Pleione saxicola'' .
*''Pleione scopulorum'' .
*''Pleione vietnamensis'' .
*''Pleione yunnanensis'' .

It has been suggested that ''P. bulbocodioides'', ''P. limprichtii'' and ''P. pleionoides'' could all be the same species.

Currently, there are two sections in the genus ''Pleione''
*section Pleione : ''P. x lagenaria, P. maculata, P. praecox, and P. saxicola.''
*section Humiles : ''P. albiflora, P. bulbocodioides, P. chunii, P. x confusa, P. coronaria, P. formosana, P. forrestii,¨P. grandiflora, P. hookeriana, P. praecox, P. x kohlsii, P. limprichtii, P. pleionoides, P. scopulorum, P. yunnanensis.''

Natural Hybrids

*''Pleione × barbarae'' .
*''Pleione × christianii'' .
*''Pleione × confusa'' .
*''Pleione × kohlsii'' .
*''Pleione × lagenaria'' ..
*''Pleione × taliensis'' .

the parentage of P x christianii is yunnanensis x forrestii and ''not'' bulbocodiodes x forrestii as has been wrongly quoted

Paphiopedilum malipoense

Paphiopedilum malipoense is commonly known as the Jade Slipper Orchid. The plant starts blooming in the spring time and has one flower per inflorescence. The plant grows in intermediate to cool conditions. Its flowers have a raspberry fragrance.

Distribution

''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' is found in Northern Vietnam and the provinces of Guangxi, Guizhou and Yunnan of China at the elevation of 570 to 1600 meters. It is found growing on limestone cliffs with leaf litter. The area where this plant is found is subjected to heavy fog in the winter and rain in the early spring and summer.

Culture

Keep in intermediate to cool areas, with temperatures around 35F to 80F. To induce blooming, water less and keep cool during the winter. High amounts of light will cause the plant to flower more frequently. This plant does best in wet areas and prefers moss near the roots. Plants can be potted in a mix that contains gravel, bark and perlite. Keep humidity at 60 to 80%. Plants should be kept in areas with moderate lighting.

Varieties

Paphiopedilum malipoense var. angustatum . Hemicr.

Paphiopedilum malipoense var. jackii . Hemicr.

*Paphiopedilum malipoense var. hiepii

Paphiopedilum malipoense var. malipoense . Hemicr.

Paphiopedilum malipoense var. concolor

Paphiopedilum malipoense var. aureum

Paphiopedilum malipoense var. alba light green flower

Paphiopedilum

Paphiopedilum is a genus in the orchid family of approximately 77 species native to South China, India, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. The genus has been given its own subtribe, the Paphiopedilinae. The genus is abbreviated Paph.

Description

The genus name ''Paphiopedilum'' is derived from the Greek ''Paphos'', a city on the island of Cyprus, and ''pedilon'', slipper. Most species in this genus were previously considered part of the genus ''Cypripedium'', but ''Paphiopedilum'' was accepted as the conserved name in 1959.

''Paphiopedilum'' are considered highly collectible by growers due to the curious and unusual form of their flowers. Most naturally occur among humus layers as s on the forest floor, while a few are true epiphytes and some are lithophytes.

Along with ''Phragmipedium'', ''Cypripedium'', ''Mexipedium'', and ''Selenipedium'', the genus is a member of the subfamily ''Cypripedioideae'', commonly referred to as the Lady’s or Venus’ , so named from the unusual shape of the of the flower, which was said to resemble a lady’s slipper. The pouch functions by trapping insects so that they are forced to climb up past the staminode, behind which they collect or deposit .

These sympodial orchids lack pseudobulbs. Instead they grow robust shoots, each with several . These can be short and rounded or long and narrow, and typically have a mottled pattern. When older shoots die, newer ones take over. Each new shoot only blooms once when it is fully grown, producing a raceme between the fleshy, succulent leaves. The roots are thick and fleshy. Potted plants form a tight lump of roots that, when untangled, can be up to l m long.

The Chinese orchid ''Paphiopedilum armeniacum'', discovered in 1979 and described in 1982, amazed growers of orchids by the extraordinary beauty of its golden flowers.

The Paphiopedilums are among the most widely cultivated and hybridized of orchid genera. Thousands of interspecific have been registered with the Royal Horticultural Society in London over the years. These orchids are relatively easy to grow indoors, as long as conditions that mimic their natural habitats are created. Most species thrive in moderate to high humidity , moderate temperatures ranging from 13 to 35 degrees Celsius and low light of 12,000 to 20,000 lux. Modern hybrids are typically easier to grow in artificial conditions than their parent species.

Synonymy

The 3 genera Cordula , Stimegas and Menephora are generally considered synonyms of ''Paphiopedilum''.

Taxonomy

The genus ''Paphiopedilum'' has been divided into several subgenera, and then further into sections and subsections.

;Subgenus ''Parvisepalum''

;Subgenus ''Brachypetalum''

;Subgenus ''Polyantha''
*section ''Mastigopetalum''
*section ''Polyantha''
*section ''Mystropetalum''
*section ''Stictopetalum''
*section ''Paphiopedilum''
*section ''Seratopetalum''
*section ''Cymatopetalum''
*section ''Thiopetalum''

;Subgenus ''Sigmatopetalum''
*section ''Spathopetalum''
**subsection ''Macronidium''
**subsection ''Spathopetalum''
*section ''Blepharopetalum''
*section ''Mastersianum''
*section ''Punctatum''
*section ''Barbata''
**subsection ''Lorapetalum''
**subsection ''Chloroneura''
*section ''Planipetalum''
*section ''Venustum''

;Subgenus ''Cochlopetalum''

Species, subspecies and varieties

*''Paphiopedilum acmodontum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum adductum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum appletonianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum argus'' .
*''Paphiopedilum armeniacum'' : Golden Slippers .
**''Paphiopedilum armeniacum'' var. ''parviflorum''
**''Paphiopedilum armeniacum'' var. ''undulatum''
**''Paphiopedilum armeniacum'' f. ''markii''
*''Paphiopedilum barbatum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum barbigerum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum bellatulum'' : Egg-in-a-nest Orchid .
*''Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum'' var. ''bougainvilleanum'' . Hemicr.
**''Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum'' var. ''saskianum'' .. Hemicr.
*''Paphiopedilum bullenianum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum bullenianum'' var. ''bullenianum'' . Hemicr.
**''Paphiopedilum bullenianum'' var. ''celebesense'' . Hemicr.
*''Paphiopedilum callosum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum callosum'' var. ''callosum'' . Hemicr.
**''Paphiopedilum callosum'' var. ''potentianum'' . Hemicr.
**''Paphiopedilum callosum'' var. ''warnerianum'' . Hemicr.
*''Paphiopedilum charlesworthii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum ciliolare'' .
*''Paphiopedilum concolor'' .
*''Paphiopedilum dayanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum delenatii''
**''Paphiopedilum delenatii'' f. ''albinum''
*''Paphiopedilum delicatum''
*''Paphiopedilum densissimum''
*''Paphiopedilum dianthum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum dixlerianum''
*''Paphiopedilum druryi'' .
*''Paphiopedilum emersonii'' .
**''Paphiopedilum emersonii'' f. ''luteum''
*''Paphiopedilum exul'' .
*''Paphiopedilum fairrieanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum fowliei'' .
*''Paphiopedilum gigantifolium'' .
*''Paphiopedilum glanduliferum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum'' var. ''glaucophyllum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum'' var. ''moquetteanum '' .
*''Paphiopedilum godefroyae'' .
*''Paphiopedilum gratrixianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum hangianum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum hangianum'' f. ''album''
*''Paphiopedilum haynaldianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum helenae'' .
*''Paphiopedilum hennisianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum henryanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum'' var. ''chiwuanum'' (China - YunNan
**''Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum'' var. ''esquirolei'' .
**''Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum'' var. ''hirsutissimum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum hookerae'' .
**''Paphiopedilum hookerae'' var. ''hookerae'' .
**''Paphiopedilum hookerae'' var. ''volonteanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum insigne'' .
*''Paphiopedilum intaniae'' .
*''Paphiopedilum jackii''
*''Paphiopedilum javanicum''
**''Paphiopedilum javanicum]]'' var. ''javanicum'' Hemicr.
**''Paphiopedilum javanicum]]'' var. ''virens'' . Hemicr.
*''Paphiopedilum kolopakingii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum lawrenceanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum liemianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum lowii'' .
**''Paphiopedilum lowii'' var. ''lowii'' .
**''Paphiopedilum lowii'' var. ''lynniae'' . Hemicr.
**''Paphiopedilum lowii'' var. ''richardianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' : Jade Slipper Orchid .
**''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' var. ''angustatum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' var. ''jackii'' Aver.
**''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' var. ''malipoense'' .
**''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' f. ''concolor'' .
**''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' f. ''tonnianum''
**''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' f. ''virescens''
*''Paphiopedilum mastersianum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum mastersianum'' var. ''mastersianum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum mastersianum'' var. ''mohrianum'' (Lesser Sunda Is. .
*''Paphiopedilum micranthum'' : Hard-leaved Pocket Orchid, Silver Slipper Orchid .
*''Paphiopedilum niveum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum ooii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum papuanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum parishii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum philippinense'' .
**''Paphiopedilum philippinense'' var. ''philippinense'' .
**''Paphiopedilum philippinense'' var. ''roebelenii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum primulinum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum primulinum'' var. ''primulinum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum primulinum'' var. ''purpurascens'' .
*''Paphiopedilum purpuratum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum purpuratum'' var. ''hainanense'' .
**''Paphiopedilum purpuratum'' var. ''purpuratum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum randsii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum rhizomatosum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum rothschildianum'' : King of the Paphs .
*''Paphiopedilum saccopetalum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum sanderianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum sangii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum schoseri'' .
*''Paphiopedilum singchii''
*''Paphiopedilum smaragdinum'' (now a synonym of ''Paphiopedilum tigrinum'' f. ''smaragdinum'' O.Gruss .
*''Paphiopedilum spicerianum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum spicerianum'' f. ''immaculatum''
*''Paphiopedilum stonei'' .
**''Paphiopedilum stonei'' var. ''platyphyllum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum stonei'' var. ''stonei''
*''Paphiopedilum sugiyamanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum sukhakulii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum supardii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum superbiens'' .
*''Paphiopedilum thaianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum tigrinum'' Koop. & N.Haseg. .
**''Paphiopedilum tigrinum'' f. ''smaragdinum'' O.Gruss .
*''Paphiopedilum tonsum'' .
**''Paphiopediltum tonsum'' f. ''alboviride''
*''Paphiopedilum tranlienianum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum tranlienianum'' f. ''alboviride''
*''Paphiopedilum urbanianum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum urbanianum'' f. ''alboviride''
*''Paphiopedilum usitanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum vejvarutianum''
*''Paphiopedilum venustum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum victoria-mariae'' .
*''Paphiopedilum victoria-regina'' .
*''Paphiopedilum vietnamense'' .
*''Paphiopedilum villosum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum villosum'' var. ''annamense'' .
**''Paphiopedilum villosum'' var. ''boxallii'' .
**''Paphiopedilum villosum'' var. ''villosum''
*''Paphiopedilum viniferum''
*''Paphiopedilum violascens'' .
*''Paphiopedilum wardii'' : Rainbow Orchid .
**''Paphiopedilum wardii'' var. ''teestaensis'' .
**''Paphiopedilum wardii'' f. ''alboviride''
*''Paphiopedilum wentworthianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum wilhelminae'' .

Natural Hybrids

*''Paphiopedilum × affine'' . .
*''Paphiopedilum × areeanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × burbidgei'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × dalatense'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × dixlerianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × expansum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × fanaticum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × frankeanum'' . 42 SUM.
*''Paphiopedilum × grussianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × herrmannii''
*''Paphiopedilum × kimballianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × littleanum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × mattesii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × pereirae'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × petchleungianum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × powellii'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × pradhanii''
*''Paphiopedilum × shipwayae'' . .
*''Paphiopedilum × siamense'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × spicerovenustum'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × venustoinsigne'' .
*''Paphiopedilum × vietenryanum'' .

Green Peafowl

The Green Peafowl, ''Pavo muticus'' is a large member of the Galliformes order that is found in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. During the Pliocene, the earliest fossil species Pavo bravardi had a large range that evidentially included much of Eastern Africa and Southern Europe. The familiar Indian Peafowl diverged from the Green Peafowl Superspecies ~ 70,000 years ago. The genetic divergence between Annametic and Arakan populations is ~1.8 million years~~ twice this old. In other words, some of the Ecological Species that make up the Green Peafowl Superspecies are less related to one another than they are to the Indian Peafowl which seems illogical to some minds on the grounds of phenotypey. The appearances of peafowl that live in habitats that have not changed for many millions of years have not diverged from that of the common ancestor of all Pavo peafowl, which probably closely resembled Pavo bravardi. The Indian Peafowl is endemic to the Indian Subcontinent and Sri Lanka which were dramatically affected about 80,000 years ago when 90% of its tropical forests were destroyed by an elecological catastrophe called the Mount Toba Eruption. India would become seasonally arid and as a consequence, the Indian Peafowl is adapted for life in dry monsoon forest and desert scrub. It probably endured genetic bottlenecks that 'fixed' its phenotype within a much more arid environment than what we see in most of India today. The Green Peafowl of tropical conifer forest habitat, for example the enigmatic Deqen Dragonbird of mountain forests of Nothern Western Yunnan and Southern Sichuan, and the Broadleafe Evergreen Habitat adapted Annamensis Dragonbird of the montane regions of South East Asia, exhibit the least sexual dichromaticism. That is the sexes closely resemble one another. Their habitats are remarkeable for the absence or abbreviation of a marked decidious season. This contrasts with the habitat of the Indian Peafowl which lives in a markedly deciduous habitat.

Description

The sexes of Green Peafowl, or Dragonbirds as they are known in their native haunts, are quite similar in appearance, especially in the field. During most of the year, when the males have no visible trains, it is quite difficult to distinguish the sexes. Bot sexes carry tall pointed crests and are long legged and heavy winged and long tailed in silhouette. Seen in the distance, they are generally dark coloured birds with pale vermillion or buff coloured primaries which are quite visible in in their peculiar flight which has been described as a true flapping flight with little gliding that one associates with Gallinates. Some ecological species of Green Peafowl are distinctly bluer in appearance whilst others are decidedly bronze and purple , or dull gold and emerald , bright citrus green and cerulean blue or blackish grey and violet blue with purple trains The wings of each respective geographic form are quite distinctive and like Turacoas,and Lophura Pheasants their reticulate phylogenetic pathways are complex and best understood as ecological. COnsequently, the phenotypey of different populations that are only distantly related to one another on a genetic level may converge, much as we have seen in the mirror phenotypes of certain dark kalijs and their altitudinal equivalents amongst the black silver pheasants. For example, Dragonbirds from Southern Vietnam are dull and greyish green and share a very similar habitat with phenotypically similar birds endemic to Southern Western Myanmar and Northern Malaysia.


The males of the mainland races are bluish-green, ''imperator'' has a metallic-green neck. The breast, wing-coverts are blue and the outer webs of secondaries are blue-green in ''imperator''. Race ''spicifer'' has a duller and bluer neck and breast with more extensively black wing-coverts and outer web of secondaries; Nominate ''muticus'' is more golden-green with less blue on the neck and breast. Considerable variation exists in plumage of neck and breast which may be linked with age and sex.

The male of some forms of Green Peafowl has a loud call of ''ki-wao'' which is often repeated. The female has a loud ''aow-aa'' call with an emphasis on the first syllable. The males call from their roost sites at dawn and dusk.
Some forms of Green Peafowl have divergent trachea morphology and this has an impact on their voices.

The Indian Peafowl has a much louder voice than all but the imperator because of the special apparatus that accentuate volume. The Arakan spicifer has no such apparatus and as such is much quieter. Green Peafowl are noted ventriloquists however and make many low vibrational vocalizations and even piercing whistle-like shrieks in some forms.

Green Peafowl are large birds, one of the largest living galliformes in terms of overall length and wingspan, though rather lighter-bodied than the Wild Turkey. The male grows up to 3 meters long, including the "train" and weighs up to 5 kg . The female is 1.1 meter long and weighs about 1.1 kg . It has large wingspan of~ four feet. Green Peafowl are unusual amongst Galliform birds in their capacity for sustained flight. They are documented flying over the ocean to roost on islets off the coast of Java and on islands in large lakes in Yunnan. Some of the islets and islands are more than fifteen miles from shore. All known genera of peafowl, Rheinartia, Afropavo, Pavo and Argusianus are known to perch on emergent trees which tower over the canopy of the rain forest or tropical savannah. Pheasants and Junglefowl do not perch above the canopy. Peafowls are obliged to fly to and from their emergent trees which form territorial anchors for adult males and their social units. They will also move by wing to forage in areas some distance from their favorite roosts. Subsequently, the morphology of the Peafowl wing is quite different from Pheasants.

Distribution and habitat

The Green Peafowl was widely distributed in Southeast Asia in the past from northern Myanmar and southern China, extending through Laos, Thailand into Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia and the islands of Java. The ranges have reduced with habitat destruction and hunting.

Green Peafowls are found in a wide range of habitats including primary and secondary forest, both tropical and subtropical, as well as evergreen and deciduous. They may also be found amongst bamboo, on grasslands, savannas, scrub and farmland edge. In Vietnam, the preferred habitat was found to be dry deciduous forest close to water and away from human disturbance. Proximity to water appears to be an important factor.

Classification

It is well established,that Peafowl are a genetically isolated group with no close relatives.
Peafowl will eventually be formally placed in their own monophyletic family.
The Green Peafowls are an ancient tribe with many divergent populations that have been isolated from one another for many tens of thousands and even hundreds of thousands of years. Though the birds appear superficially very similar to one another, they are genetically surprisingly divergent. In the following years, when more data has been compiled, Green Peafowls, will probably be reclassified, forming six distinct species, each with its own local races.

Following the advice of his Hong Kong bird dealer, World Pheasant Association founder and bird importer, Jean Delacour described three races of green peafowl.
: ''P. m. muticus'' , ''P. m. imperator'' and ''P. m. spicifer''. Some authors suggest that the race found in Yunnan may be distinct.

Race ''muticus'' was known from Malay peninsula from the northern part extending south to Kedah. Race ''imperator'' is known from the lowland forests of northern and eastern Thaliand. Race ''spicifer'' is distributed in northwestern Burma.
While peafowl are often considered members of the pheasant family, recent molecular work has shown that the Phasianidae is paraphyletic, and that peafowl are not closely related to pheasants, grouse or . They are distantly related to junglefowl and francolins however, and share a common ancestor with ''Coturnix'' quail and ''Alectoris'' Rock Partridges. While this has yet to be published, the World Pheasant Association of Germany already lists peafowl as a distinct family .

Since Delacour's profitable discovery, other forms of Green Peafowl that do not fit into any of the three described races have been described. An ongoing genetic analysis is underway. Preliminary analysis suggests that some of the more isolated Ecological Species of the Green Peafowl may in fact warrant species status. Foremost of these are the Elephant Mountain Range Pavo annamensis bokorensis and aforementioned Deqen Dragonbird of North Western Yunnan Pavo antiquus.

Like other members of the genus ''Pavo'', Green Peafowl is a colourful bird. Iridescent plumage may be a highly specialized form of crypsis that is useful in open forests and near water. Most predatory species like leopards and tigers, wild dogs, civets, owls and hawk-eagles that have been documented hunting peafowl do not have colour vision.

Green Peafowls are found today in Southeast Asia in mainland Burma, Yunnan, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia and on the island of Java in Indonesia. They are curiously absent from both Sumatra and Borneo. Records from northeastern India have been questioned and old records are possibly of feral birds.

Behaviour

The Green Peafowl is a forest bird which nests on the ground laying 3 to 6 eggs.

It has been widely believed without quantification that the Green Peafowl is polygynous, the male having no parental responsibilities whatsoever. It has been reported that some males are very solitary, trying to mate with every female that enters his territory, while females gather in harems.

However, these are only presuppositions based upon the behaviors of captive or semi-captive Indian Peafowl which are facultatively polygynous and from observations of highly territorial male Green Peafowl guarding nest sites. The notion that the male is polygynous also conflicts with observations in the field and captivity; pairs left alone with no human interaction have been observed to be strongly monogamous. The close similarity between both sexes also suggests a different breeding system in contrast to that of the Indian Peafowl. Thus, some authors have suggested that the harems seen in the field are juvenile birds and that males are not promiscuous. Indeed, it may be that the males are more higly invested in the long-term care of their progeny than the female. Green Peafowl have been observed in Java in multiple generation helper systems where sexually immature bird help their parents look after their younger siblings. This has also been documented in captive Afropavo, and Argusianus peafowls and even in the facultatively polygamous Indian peafowl.

They usually spend time on or near the ground in tall grasses and sedges. Like other peafowl, the Dragonbirds love to wade and forage for food in the shallows for a good portion of each day. Family units roost in trees at a height of 10-15m. The diet consists mainly of invertebrates, insects, reptiles, fruits and small animals. As with other members of its genus, the Green Peafowl can even hunt venomous snakes, making them useful for pest control. Ticks and termites, flower petals, buds leaves and berries are favorite foods of adult peafowl. Frogs and other aquatic small animals probably make up the bulk of the diet of growing birds.


Their natural predators include large cats, the clouded leopard, Asiatic leopard, tiger, jungle cat and fishing cat prey on adult birds. As Dragonbirds are so large with both sexes armed with powerful kicking thorns or metatarsal spurs, many predators ignore peafowl. for example birds of prey which specialize on junglefowl and pheasants routinely ignore peafowl. During the long weeks of incubation and chick rearing close to the ground, mortality is at its height. This one reason field biologists familiar with peafowl believe that their nest defense strategies have evolved. The most serious enemies of the nest are probably reptilian, monitor lizards and snakes for example, but civets and non obligatory birds like crows are probably also important nest predators. Adult and subadult progeny help defend the nest site and foraging territories against intruders.
The Dragonbird earned its name for its proclivity to attack monitor lizards and large snakes like pythons. Green peafowl have also been documented attacking young leopards and an adult fishing cat.

Green Peafowl occupy a very similar ecological niche as the unrelated Secretary Bird, Seriama, and Bustard. That is to say, Green Peafowl hunt for small animals on the ground in tropical savannah. Like these other predatory bird species, Green Peafowl are monogamous and enjoy prolonged relationships with their offspring. All these cursorial hunters display delayed maturity, are long legged, heavily winged, with prominent crests and long, broad tails.

Status

Due to hunting and a reduction in extent and quality of habitat, the Green Peafowl is evaluated as on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. The world population has declined rapidly and the species no longer occurs in many areas of its past distribution. The population in the wild was estimated to be about 5,000 to 10,000 individuals around 1995.

Hybridisation with the Indian Peafowl may also be a cause for the decline of the Green Peafowl, damaging the gene stock of captive birds. Certain birds both in the wild and captivity which are thought to be pure Green Peafowl are really hybrids, known by some as "spauldings" or "spaldings". Additionally, the subspecies of Green Peafowl have also been heavily mixed in captivity.

Although all subspecies are declining, ''P. m. spicifer'' and ''P. m. imperator'' are not declining as much as ''P. m. muticus''. Some breeders mistakingly say that the race ''spicifer'' is extinct, although this is not true. Nonetheless, this subspecies is also declining rapidly. The race/group ''imperator'' may still be common in isolated parts of its range.

The nominate race supposedly lived in Malaysia, as well as the Isthmus of Kra, but had became extinct in the 1960s.

In 2005, reported that successful reintroductions were being made in Malaysia by the World Pheasant Association .

However, the reintroductions have not been without controversy. The publication stated that the Javan and Malay form were genetically identical, which has been widely accepted by the scientific community. However, some do not believe the forms are identical; more recent genetic work confirms this. Because of the notion that the two forms were not identical there are concerns that the wrong form of Green Peafowl was introduced. Another statement by certain publications is that the birds introduced were the nominate ''muticus''. Photos and video footage of some of the reintroduced birds in Malaysia have been identified as ''spicifer''. However, the DNA of the introduced stock of spicifer matched that of old museum skins in Malaysia, confirming the birds introduced were native to the area.

Media

Distribution of orchid species

This page lists all orchid species according to their respective distribution range.

Africa only

*''Agrostophyllum occidentale''
*''Agrostophyllum seychellarum''
*''Ancistrochilus rothschildianus''
*''Ancistrochilus thomsonianus''

China only, including Taiwan and Hainan

Northeast China only

*''Cypripedium agnicapitatum''
*''Cypripedium morinanthum''
*''Cypripedium neoparviflorum''
*''Cypripedium roseum''
*''Cypripedium sinapoides''

Tibet, Southwest, South-Central China only

Taiwan only

*''Cypripedium formosanum''
*''Cypripedium segawai''

China through Korea, Japan

*''Cypripedium debile''
*''Cypripedium japonicum''
*''Cypripedium shanxiense''

China through Southeast Asia

*''Cypripedium lichiangense''
*''Cypripedium plectrochilum''
*''Paphiopedilum appletonianum''
*''Paphiopedilum armeniacum''
*''Paphiopedilum bellatulum''
*''Paphiopedilum charlesworthii''
*''Paphiopedilum concolor''
*''Paphiopedilum hangianum''
*''Paphiopedilum henryanum''
**''Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum'' var. ''esquirolei''
*''Paphiopedilum malipoense''
**''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' var. ''jackii'' Aver.
*''Paphiopedilum malipoense'' var. ''malipoense''
*''Paphiopedilum micranthum''
*''Paphiopedilum wardii''
*''Paphiopedilum villosum'' var. ''annamense''
*''Pleione albiflora''
*''Pleione forrestii'' - to N. Myanmar)
*''Pleione grandiflora'' (China
*''Pleione yunnanensis''

Himalaya endemic

*''Agrostophyllum flavidum''
*''Agrostophyllum myrianthum''
*''Paphiopedilum insigne''
*''Paphiopedilum venustum''
*''Pleione coronaria''

Southern India, Sri Lanka endemic

*''Adrorhizon purpurascens''
*''Paphiopedilum druryi''
*''Agrostophyllum zeylanicum''

South Asia through Himalaya through China, including Hainan

*''Agrostophyllum callosum''
*''Cypripedium cordigerum''
*''Cypripedium elegans''
*''Cypripedium himalaicum''
*''Cypripedium tibeticum''
*''Paphiopedilum fairrieanum''
*''Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum''
*''Paphiopedilum parishii''
*''Paphiopedilum villosum''
*''Pleione maculata''
*''Pleione praecox''
*''Pleione saxicola''
*''Pleione scopulorum''

South Asia through Himalaya to Southeast Asia, possibly Pacific Islands

''Acanthephippium bicolor''
''Acanthephippium striatum''
*''Acanthephippium sylhetense''
*''Agrostophyllum brevipes''
*''Agrostophyllum planicaule''
*''Arundina graminifolia''
*''Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum'' var. ''hirsutissimum''
*''Paphiopedilum spicerianum''
*''Paphiopedilum villosum'' var. ''villosum''
*''Pleione hookeriana''
*''Pleione humilis''

Southeast Asia only

''Acanthephippium gougahensis''
''Acanthephippium parviflorum''
''Agrostophyllum longifolium''
''Dendrochilum pallidiflavens''
*''Dendrochilum pallidiflavens'' var. ''pallidiflavens''
*''Paphiopedilum barbatum''
*''Paphiopedilum callosum''
**''Paphiopedilum callosum'' var. ''callosum''
**''Paphiopedilum callosum'' var. ''warnerianum''
*''Paphiopedilum dixlerianum''
*''Paphiopedilum gratrixianum''
*''Paphiopedilum niveum''
*''Paphiopedilum philippinense''
**''Paphiopedilum philippinense'' var. ''philippinense''
*''Paphiopedilum rhizomatosum''
**''Paphiopedilum villosum'' var. ''boxallii''

Continental Malaysia only

*''Agrostophyllum cyathiforme''
*''Agrostophyllum glumaceum''
*''Agrostophyllum javanicum''
*''Agrostophyllum laxum''
*''Agrostophyllum stipulatum'' subsp. ''bicuspidatum''
*''Agrostophyllum tenue''
*''Dendrochilum carnosum''
*''Dendrochilum coccineum''
''Dendrochilum gracile''
*''Dendrochilum gracile'' var. ''gracile''
''Dendrochilum gramineum''
*''Paphiopedilum bullenianum''
*''Paphiopedilum bullenianum'' var. ''bullenianum''
*''Paphiopedilum lowii''
*''Paphiopedilum lowii'' var. ''lowii''

Indonesia only, including whole of Borneo

''Dendrochilum galeatum'' H.A.Pedersen 1995 publ. 1996
*''Paphiopedilum javanicum''
*''Paphiopedilum javanicum]]'' var. ''javanicum''
*''Paphiopedilum liemianum''
*''Paphiopedilum mastersianum''
*''Paphiopedilum mastersianum'' var. ''mastersianum''
*''Paphiopedilum mastersianum'' var. ''mohrianum'' (Lesser Sunda Is.

Borneo only

Java endemic

*''Agrostophyllum latilobum''
*''Dendrochilum abbreviatum''
''Dendrochilum abbreviatum'' var. ''abbreviatum''
''Dendrochilum abbreviatum'' var. ''remiforme''
''Dendrochilum brachyotum''
*''Dendrochilum edentulum'' var. ''edentulum''
''Dendrochilum oxyglossum''
''Dendrochilum spathaceum''
''Dendrochilum zollingeri''
*''Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum''
*''Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum'' var. ''glaucophyllum''
*''Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum'' var. ''moquetteanum ''

Sulawesi endemics, Malukus endemics, and species endemic to both

*''Agrostophyllum amboinense''
*''Agrostophyllum atrovirens''
*''Agrostophyllum simile''
*''Agrostophyllum vanhulstijnii''
*''Dendrochilum ambangense''
*''Dendrochilum celebesense''
*''Dendrochilum citrinum''
*''Dendrochilum edentulum'' var. ''patentibracteatum''
*''Dendrochilum erectilabium''
*''Dendrochilum eymae''
''Dendrochilum heptaphyllum''
''Dendrochilum latibrachiatum''
''Dendrochilum longipedicellatum''
''Dendrochilum macropterum''
''Dendrochilum monodii''
''Dendrochilum muriculatum''
''Dendrochilum simplicissimum''
''Dendrochilum tenuissimum''
*''Paphiopedilum bullenianum'' var. ''celebesense''
*''Paphiopedilum gigantifolium''
*''Paphiopedilum intaniae''
*''Paphiopedilum lowii'' var. ''richardianum''
*''Paphiopedilum sangii''
*''Paphiopedilum schoseri''

Sumatra only

Species native to more than one of the following: Western Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, New Guinea, the Philippines and Taiwan

*''Acanthephippium javanicum''
*''Acanthephippium splendidum''
*''Agrostophyllum denbergeri''
*''Agrostophyllum inocephalum''
*''Agrostophyllum mearnsii''
*''Agrostophyllum sumatranum''
*''Agrostophyllum trifidum''
''Dendrochilum angustifolium''
''Dendrochilum aurantiacum''
''Dendrochilum crassum''
*''Dendrochilum cornutum''
''Dendrochilum dewindtianum''
''Dendrochilum edentulum''
''Dendrochilum exalatum''
*''Dendrochilum glumaceum''
''Dendrochilum kingii''
''Dendrochilum kingii'' var. ''kingii''
''Dendrochilum longifolium''
''Dendrochilum linearifolium''
''Dendrochilum odoratum''
''Dendrochilum simile''
''Dendrochilum uncatum'''
*''Dendrochilum uncatum'' var. ''uncatum''
''Dendrochilum vaginatum'' J.J.Sm. 1904

Philippines only

Thailand only

''Dendrochilum viride''
**''Paphiopedilum callosum'' var. ''potentianum''
*''Paphiopedilum exul''
*''Paphiopedilum godefroyae''
*''Paphiopedilum sukhakulii''
*''Paphiopedilum thaianum''
*''Paphiopedilum vejvarutianum''

Vietnam only

*''Paphiopedilum delenatii''
*''Paphiopedilum helenae''
*''Paphiopedilum tranlienianum'' .
**''Paphiopedilum tranlienianum'' f. ''alboviride''
*''Paphiopedilum vietnamense''
*''Pleione vietnamensis''

Southeast Asia through New Guinea and Pacific Islands

*''Agrostophyllum elongatum''
*''Agrostophyllum majus''
*''Agrostophyllum stipulatum''
*''Agrostophyllum parviflorum''
*''Agrostophyllum stipulatum'' subsp. ''stipulatum''

Europe through Asia

*''Cypripedium calceolus''
*''Cypripedium macranthum''

New Guinea and adjacent islands only

New Guinea through Pacific Islands

*''Agrostophyllum curvilabre''
*''Agrostophyllum graminifolium''
*''Agrostophyllum leucocephalum''
*''Agrostophyllum megalurum''
*''Agrostophyllum paniculatum''
*''Agrostophyllum superpositum''
*''Agrostophyllum torricellense''

Pacific Islands endemic

*''Agrostophyllum aristatum''
*''Agrostophyllum kusaiense''
*''Agrostophyllum palawense''
*''Earina aestivalis''
*''Earina autumnalis''
*''Earina mucronata''
*''Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum''
**''Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum'' var. ''bougainvilleanum''
**''Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum'' var. ''saskianum''
*''Paphiopedilum wentworthianum''

North America only

*''Arethusa bulbosa''
*''Cypripedium acaule''
*''Cypripedium × andrewsii''
*''Cypripedium arietinum''
*''Cypripedium candidum''
*''Cypripedium × columbianum''
*''Cypripedium fasciculatum''
*''Cypripedium kentuckiense''
*''Cypripedium parviflorum'' .
*''Cypripedium parviflorum'' var. ''parviflorum''
*''Cypripedium parviflorum'' var. ''pubescens''
*''Cypripedium passerinum''
*''Cypripedium reginae''

Pacific Coast only

*''Cypripedium × alaskanum''
*''Cypripedium californicum''
*''Cypripedium montanum''

Canadian Prairies only

*''Cypripedium x herae''

Mexico endemics

*''Cypripedium molle''

Mexico through Central and South America endemics

*''Brassavola cucullata''
*''Brassavola nodosa''
*''Brassavola venosa''
*''Cypripedium dickinsonianum''
*''Cypripedium irapeanum''
*''Mexipedium xerophyticum''
*''Phragmipedium exstaminodium''

Central America and Caribbean Islands

*''Brassavola acaulis''
*''Brassavola subulifolia''
*''Brassavola gillettei''
*''Brassavola harrisii''
*''Cattleya dowiana''
*''Phragmipedium popowii''

Central America and Caribbean Islands through South America

*''Brassavola grandiflora''
*''Cattleya aurea''
*''Cattleya gaskelliana''
*''Phragmipedium longifolium''

Pantropical South America endemics

includes all tropical regions in South America:
*''Brassavola martiana''

Andes endemics

includes portions of countries along the Andean cordillera: Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, Bolivia.
*''Cattleya iricolor''

Northern South America endemics

spans several of these entities: Venezuela, Guyana, French Guyana, and northern parts of Brazil, Peru, and Argentina.
*''Brassavola gardneri''
*''Brassavola retusa''
*''Brassavola tuberculata''
*''Cattleya jenmanii''
*''Cattleya lawrenceana''
*''Cattleya lueddemanniana''
*''Phragmipedium klotzschianum''
*''Phragmipedium lindenii''
*''Phragmipedium lindleyanum''
*''Phragmipedium tetzlaffianum''
''Selenipedium steyermarkii''

Southern South America endemics

spans several of these entities: southern Brazil, and the countries Paraguay and Uruguay.
*''Cattleya intermedia''
*''Cattleya loddigesii''
*''Cattleya loddigesii'' subsp. ''loddigesii''

Bolivia only

*''Phragmipedium caricinum''

Brazil endemics

*''Brassavola duckeana''
*''Brassavola fasciculata''
*''Brassavola flagellaris''
*''Brassavola fragans''
*''Brassavola reginae''
*''Brassavola revoluta''
*''Brassavola rhomboglossa''
*''Cattleya aclandiae''
*''Cattleya amethystoglossa''
*''Cattleya bicolor''
**''Cattleya bicolor'' subsp. ''bicolor''
**''Cattleya bicolor'' subsp. ''canastrensis''
**''Cattleya bicolor'' subsp. ''minasgeraiensis''
*''Cattleya dormaniana''
*''Cattleya elongata''
*''Cattleya forbesii''
*''Cattleya granulosa''
*''Cattleya guttata'' .
*''Cattleya harrisoniana'' .
*''Cattleya kerrii'' .
*''Cattleya labiata''
**''Cattleya loddigesii'' subsp. ''purpurea''
*''Cattleya porphyroglossa'' .
*''Cattleya schilleriana'' .
*''Cattleya schofieldiana''
*''Cattleya tenuis'' .
*''Cattleya tigrina''
*''Cattleya velutina''
*''Cattleya walkeriana''
*''Cattleya wallisii''
*''Cattleya warneri''
*''Phragmipedium brasiliense''
*''Phragmipedium chapadense''
*''Phragmipedium vittatum''
*''Selenipedium isabelianum''
*''Selenipedium palmifolium''
*''Selenipedium vanillocarpum''

Colombia endemics

*''Brassavola filifolia''
*''Cattleya candida''
*''Cattleya mendelii''
*''Cattleya schroderae''
*''Cattleya trianae''
*''Cattleya warscewiczii''
*''Phragmipedium schlimii''

Colombia through Ecuador

*''Phragmipedium warszewiczianum''

Ecuador only

*''Phragmipedium andreettae''
*''Phragmipedium besseae'' var. ''dalessandroi''
*''Phragmipedium fischeri''
*''Phragmipedium hirtzii''
*''Phragmipedium × roethianum''
*''Selenipedium aequinoctiale''

Ecuador through Peru

*''Phragmipedium besseae''
**''Phragmipedium besseae'' var. ''besseae''
*''Phragmipedium boissierianum''
**''Phragmipedium boissierianum'' var. ''czerwiakowianum''
*''Phragmipedium pearcei''
*''Phragmipedium reticulatum''

Peru endemics

*''Cattleya mooreana''
*''Phragmipedium boissierianum'' var. ''boissierianum''
*''Phragmipedium kovachii''
*''Phragmipedium richteri''

Other South America endemics

spans several South American countries and does not fit in any of the above:
*''Cattleya luteola''
*''Cattleya maxima''

Siberia only, or through Korea, Japan, and Alaska, or circumpolar

*''Calypso bulbosa''
*''Cypripedium × catherinae''
*''Cypripedium guttatum''
*''Cypripedium × ventricosum''
*''Cypripedium yatabeanum''